Some of the commonest human factors problems of expert systems have been reviewed ( Hopkin, 1984). An expert system has as one objective the incorporation of relevant human expert knowledge into a data base containing other information about the functioning system, such as sensed data, rules, and algorithms, so that the whole is accessible to system users. In principle, many findings concerning expert systems might be applicable to air traffic control.
#Traffic control professional#
If this kind of consequence is foreseen correctly, it can be turned to advantage by ensuring that the tasks that are designed require sufficient interaction between people to foster the perpetuation of professional norms.
#Traffic control full#
How can the individual controller ever gauge or understand such norms if the opportunities for closely collaborative teamwork are consistently curtailed by fundamental changes in system concepts and design? Progressively introduced automated assistance may therefore thwart the full development of professional norms and standards, which are a hallmark of membership of a profession and a major driving force behind the high standards of achievement of many individual air traffic controllers. For example, the development of professional norms, standards, and ethos occurs as the individual newcomer to a profession absorbs from others what is expected from anyone who aspires to become a fully competent and accepted member of that profession.
Some of the consequences of this may be unexpected but can nevertheless be predicted. Traditional forms of supervision and assistance may no longer be feasible when much of the work consists of interchanges across an interface between controller and machine. To give the controller nothing but monitoring functions is therefore to introduce recalcitrant human factors problems for which no satisfactory solution may be found.Ī further unwelcome consequence of automated assistance in air traffic control originates in the fact that most aids are more suitable for individuals than for teams, and dialogues between human and machine take the place of interactions between people. This is not to be construed as a lack of dedication or professionalism among controllers, but it is a statement about the nature of human memory and understanding and the inability of humans to perform indefinitely routine tasks which are never needed but always superfluous. Without active participation in the control loop, the maintenance of knowledge of what is happening becomes insufficient to perform even those residual functions adequately.
The controller may no longer be able to intervene in emergencies and be flexible in dealing with nonstandard circumstances. To cast the controller in a role which requires the monitoring of automated functions rather than active involvement in them is ultimately self-defeating. The controller does not use this retrieved information for any air traffic control purpose, but merely looks at it as a reassurance to aid memory and understanding of the current air traffic control situation.
#Traffic control manual#
The extent to which active participation in routine tasks aids memory and understanding has been consistently underestimated, so that when computer assistance takes the form of the replacement of the manual performance of routine tasks by their performance automatically, the controller often finds it necessary to introduce a new task, since positive action is now required to retrieve from the system information formerly obtained incidentally during the performance of manual functions. Many of the prospective benefits of progressive automation may prove to be elusive unless all its human factors implications are anticipated and allowed for. These changes, if well chosen and sensibly introduced, can produce many benefits, but it is important to be aware of some of their human factors consequences which may not be so welcome, the prevention of which should influence the particular forms which automation takes. Many of these innovations imply increased automation of functions or more computer assistance for controllers. The future may bring intelligent knowledge-based systems, expert systems, very accurate satellite-derived navigational information, automated speech synthesis and speech recognition, touch-sensitive input devices, glorious color-a whole panoply of technological advances which can now be foreseen, if not implemented. David Hopkin, in Human Factors in Aviation, 1988 The Impact of AutomationĪir traffic control is a large human–machine system.
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